Skills Lab 06: Data Wrangling

class: center, middle, inverse, title-slide

.title[
# Skills Lab 06: Data Wrangling
]
.subtitle[
## <i>Straight Outta Composites</i>
]
.author[
### Dr Danielle Evans
]
.date[
### 7 March 2024
]

---

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## Overview

- **Reverse Coding**

+ What? 
  + Why? 
  + How?
  
- **Composites**

+ What? 
  + Why?
  + How?

--
<br>
<br>
<br>
<br>

.center[

###  *Let's get ready to wRangle!! (Yes, again...)*

]

---

## Reverse Coding - What & Why?

- When we design questionnaires & scales we have the choice of phrasing items **positively** or **negatively**

-  A positively-phrased item could be:

.center[

**"I love R with all of my heart."**

]

- Whereas a negatively-phrased item could be:

.center[

**"I hate R with every part of my being."**

]

- Both Qs measure the same underlying construct, but a high score on these two items reflects opposing feelings (i.e., high like or high dislike)

<div class="mb" style="font-size:90%">
<p><b>Woah!</b> Negatively-phrased items can help reduce/identify acquiescent or careless responding on surveys - the goal is always <b>high quality data</b> 😍</p>
</div>

---

## Reverse Coding - What & Why?

- <a class='glossary' title='Reverse coding, also known as reverse scoring, is a technique used in questionnaire design and data analysis. It involves changing the scoring direction of specific items in a questionnaire to counteract response biases. This entails selecting items with opposite meanings, scoring the responses in the opposite direction, and then incorporating these reversed scores into the overall analysis.'>Reverse Coding</a> (or reverse scoring) is where we change the **numeric values** assigned to **negatively-phrased items** so that a **high score** reflects the same type of response across all items in our questionnaire

- With reverse coding, we're not changing participants' data, but just the numeric values we have assigned to the responses for a specific item

---

## Reverse Coding - What & Why?

- Let's say we have the two example items below in our questionnaire, where **strongly disagree** is scored as **1** and **strongly agree** is scored as **5**:

.center[

**"Q1. I really enjoy learning R"**

**"Q2. I find R soul-destroying."**

]

- Assuming our participant feels consistently **positive** about **R**, then they would get a score of **5** for **Q1** & a score of **1** for **Q2**

- So if we calculated their mean score across these two items, we'd get **3**, which doesn't reflect their positive feelings towards R i.e., it looks as though they feel pretty neutral towards R, instead of reflecting their **R love**

---

## Reverse Coding - What & Why?

- But we can reverse code/score the negatively-phrased item by flipping around the scoring

- Now, the first item is still scored as **strongly disagree** = **1** and **strongly agree** = **5**, but our second item is now scored in the opposite direction where **strongly disagree** = **5** and **strongly agree** = **1**

.center[

**"Q1. I really enjoy learning R"**

**"Q2. I find R soul-destroying."**

]

- Now if we calculated the mean score across these items for our R LovR participant, they would score a **5**, which accurately reflects their consistently positive feelings towards R

---

## Any Questions?

.center[

]

---

## Reverse Coding - How?

- There are multiple ways we can reverse code our variables in **R**:

+ If we have **numeric data**, we can use simple maths or we can use the **dplyr::recode()** function - just like in the [skills lab last week..](https://canvas.sussex.ac.uk/courses/27493/pages/week-5)

+ If we have **factor data**, we can use the **forcats::relevel()** function

+ If we have **character data**, we can use **dplyr::recode()**

- We can, but we don't *need* to reverse code items before we do a **factor analysis** (FA), but we *must* reverse code negative items before we do a **reliability analysis** (RA)

- We also need to reverse code items before creating **composites** - but more on that later!

<div class="tu" style="font-size:90%">
<p><b>Top Tip!</b> It's a good idea to reverse code items <i>after</i> running a <b>FA</b>, because items you might assume are negatively-phrased, don't always turn out to be! </p>
</div>

---

## Reverse Coding - How?

**Step 1: Look at the factor loadings:**

.pull-left[

<table>
 <thead>
  <tr>
   <th style="text-align:left;background-color: #3f51b5; color: #fff; !important;font-size: 16px;"> Variable </th>
   <th style="text-align:right;background-color: #3f51b5; color: #fff; !important;font-size: 16px;"> MR1 </th>
   <th style="text-align:right;background-color: #3f51b5; color: #fff; !important;font-size: 16px;"> MR2 </th>
   <th style="text-align:right;background-color: #3f51b5; color: #fff; !important;font-size: 16px;"> MR3 </th>
  </tr>
 </thead>
<tbody>
  <tr>
   <td style="text-align:left;background-color: #e4eaff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;"> RQ6 </td>
   <td style="text-align:right;background-color: #e4eaff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;"> 0.91 </td>
   <td style="text-align:right;background-color: #e4eaff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;"> 0.12 </td>
   <td style="text-align:right;background-color: #e4eaff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;"> 0.15 </td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
   <td style="text-align:left;background-color: #e4eaff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;"> RQ8 </td>
   <td style="text-align:right;background-color: #e4eaff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;"> 0.79 </td>
   <td style="text-align:right;background-color: #e4eaff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;"> -0.08 </td>
   <td style="text-align:right;background-color: #e4eaff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;"> -0.33 </td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
   <td style="text-align:left;background-color: #e4eaff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;"> RQ7 </td>
   <td style="text-align:right;background-color: #e4eaff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;"> 0.71 </td>
   <td style="text-align:right;background-color: #e4eaff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;"> 0.16 </td>
   <td style="text-align:right;background-color: #e4eaff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;"> -0.06 </td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
   <td style="text-align:left;background-color: #e4eaff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;border-bottom: 3px solid white;"> RQ5 </td>
   <td style="text-align:right;background-color: #e4eaff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;border-bottom: 3px solid white;"> -0.54 </td>
   <td style="text-align:right;background-color: #e4eaff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;border-bottom: 3px solid white;"> 0.37 </td>
   <td style="text-align:right;background-color: #e4eaff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;border-bottom: 3px solid white;"> -0.08 </td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
   <td style="text-align:left;background-color: #c8d0ff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;"> RQ3 </td>
   <td style="text-align:right;background-color: #c8d0ff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;"> 0.01 </td>
   <td style="text-align:right;background-color: #c8d0ff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;"> 0.95 </td>
   <td style="text-align:right;background-color: #c8d0ff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;"> -0.05 </td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
   <td style="text-align:left;background-color: #c8d0ff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;border-bottom: 3px solid white;"> RQ2 </td>
   <td style="text-align:right;background-color: #c8d0ff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;border-bottom: 3px solid white;"> 0.04 </td>
   <td style="text-align:right;background-color: #c8d0ff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;border-bottom: 3px solid white;"> 0.95 </td>
   <td style="text-align:right;background-color: #c8d0ff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;border-bottom: 3px solid white;"> -0.02 </td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
   <td style="text-align:left;background-color: #a1aeff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;"> RQ9_NEG </td>
   <td style="text-align:right;background-color: #a1aeff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;"> 0.08 </td>
   <td style="text-align:right;background-color: #a1aeff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;"> -0.14 </td>
   <td style="text-align:right;background-color: #a1aeff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;"> 0.95 </td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
   <td style="text-align:left;background-color: #a1aeff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;"> RQ1_NEG </td>
   <td style="text-align:right;background-color: #a1aeff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;"> -0.19 </td>
   <td style="text-align:right;background-color: #a1aeff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;"> 0.01 </td>
   <td style="text-align:right;background-color: #a1aeff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;"> 0.81 </td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
   <td style="text-align:left;background-color: #a1aeff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;"> RQ4_NEG </td>
   <td style="text-align:right;background-color: #a1aeff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;"> -0.35 </td>
   <td style="text-align:right;background-color: #a1aeff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;"> -0.20 </td>
   <td style="text-align:right;background-color: #a1aeff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;"> 0.42 </td>
  </tr>
</tbody>
</table>

]

.pull-right[

<table>
 <thead>
  <tr>
   <th style="text-align:left;background-color: #3f51b5; color: #fff; !important;font-size: 16px;"> Variable </th>
   <th style="text-align:left;background-color: #3f51b5; color: #fff; !important;font-size: 16px;"> Question </th>
  </tr>
 </thead>
<tbody>
  <tr>
   <td style="text-align:left;background-color: #e4eaff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;"> RQ6 </td>
   <td style="text-align:left;background-color: #e4eaff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;"> I enjoy working with computers. </td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
   <td style="text-align:left;background-color: #e4eaff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;"> RQ8 </td>
   <td style="text-align:left;background-color: #e4eaff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;"> I feel confident using computers. </td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
   <td style="text-align:left;background-color: #e4eaff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;"> RQ7 </td>
   <td style="text-align:left;background-color: #e4eaff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;"> I find computers easy to use. </td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
   <td style="text-align:left;background-color: #e4eaff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;border-bottom: 3px solid white;"> RQ5 </td>
   <td style="text-align:left;background-color: #e4eaff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;border-bottom: 3px solid white;"> I find technology challenging. </td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
   <td style="text-align:left;background-color: #c8d0ff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;"> RQ3 </td>
   <td style="text-align:left;background-color: #c8d0ff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;"> I love learning about statistics. </td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
   <td style="text-align:left;background-color: #c8d0ff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;border-bottom: 3px solid white;"> RQ2 </td>
   <td style="text-align:left;background-color: #c8d0ff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;border-bottom: 3px solid white;"> I like maths. </td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
   <td style="text-align:left;background-color: #a1aeff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;"> RQ9_NEG </td>
   <td style="text-align:left;background-color: #a1aeff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;"> I hate RStudio </td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
   <td style="text-align:left;background-color: #a1aeff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;"> RQ1_NEG </td>
   <td style="text-align:left;background-color: #a1aeff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;"> I dislike my R practicals. </td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
   <td style="text-align:left;background-color: #a1aeff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;"> RQ4_NEG </td>
   <td style="text-align:left;background-color: #a1aeff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;"> I don't enjoy using R. </td>
  </tr>
</tbody>
</table>

]

<br>

<div class="tu" style="font-size:90%">
<p><b>Top Tip!</b> We're looking for <b>inconsistent signs +/-</b> on the <b>primary</b> factor loading!</p>
</div>

---
## Reverse Coding - How?

**Step 2: Decide which, if any, variables are negatively related**

.pull-left[

<table>
 <thead>
  <tr>
   <th style="text-align:left;background-color: #3f51b5; color: #fff; !important;font-size: 16px;"> Variable </th>
   <th style="text-align:right;background-color: #3f51b5; color: #fff; !important;font-size: 16px;"> MR1 </th>
   <th style="text-align:right;background-color: #3f51b5; color: #fff; !important;font-size: 16px;"> MR2 </th>
   <th style="text-align:right;background-color: #3f51b5; color: #fff; !important;font-size: 16px;"> MR3 </th>
  </tr>
 </thead>
<tbody>
  <tr>
   <td style="text-align:left;background-color: #e4eaff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;"> RQ6 </td>
   <td style="text-align:right;background-color: #e4eaff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;"> 0.91 </td>
   <td style="text-align:right;background-color: #e4eaff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;"> 0.12 </td>
   <td style="text-align:right;background-color: #e4eaff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;"> 0.15 </td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
   <td style="text-align:left;background-color: #e4eaff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;"> RQ8 </td>
   <td style="text-align:right;background-color: #e4eaff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;"> 0.79 </td>
   <td style="text-align:right;background-color: #e4eaff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;"> -0.08 </td>
   <td style="text-align:right;background-color: #e4eaff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;"> -0.33 </td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
   <td style="text-align:left;background-color: #e4eaff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;"> RQ7 </td>
   <td style="text-align:right;background-color: #e4eaff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;"> 0.71 </td>
   <td style="text-align:right;background-color: #e4eaff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;"> 0.16 </td>
   <td style="text-align:right;background-color: #e4eaff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;"> -0.06 </td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
   <td style="text-align:left;background-color: #e4eaff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;font-weight: bold;background-color: #e4eaff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;border-bottom: 3px solid white;"> RQ5 </td>
   <td style="text-align:right;background-color: #e4eaff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;font-weight: bold;background-color: #e4eaff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;border-bottom: 3px solid white;"> -0.54 </td>
   <td style="text-align:right;background-color: #e4eaff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;font-weight: bold;background-color: #e4eaff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;border-bottom: 3px solid white;"> 0.37 </td>
   <td style="text-align:right;background-color: #e4eaff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;font-weight: bold;background-color: #e4eaff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;border-bottom: 3px solid white;"> -0.08 </td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
   <td style="text-align:left;background-color: #c8d0ff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;"> RQ3 </td>
   <td style="text-align:right;background-color: #c8d0ff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;"> 0.01 </td>
   <td style="text-align:right;background-color: #c8d0ff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;"> 0.95 </td>
   <td style="text-align:right;background-color: #c8d0ff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;"> -0.05 </td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
   <td style="text-align:left;background-color: #c8d0ff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;border-bottom: 3px solid white;"> RQ2 </td>
   <td style="text-align:right;background-color: #c8d0ff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;border-bottom: 3px solid white;"> 0.04 </td>
   <td style="text-align:right;background-color: #c8d0ff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;border-bottom: 3px solid white;"> 0.95 </td>
   <td style="text-align:right;background-color: #c8d0ff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;border-bottom: 3px solid white;"> -0.02 </td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
   <td style="text-align:left;background-color: #a1aeff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;"> RQ9_NEG </td>
   <td style="text-align:right;background-color: #a1aeff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;"> 0.08 </td>
   <td style="text-align:right;background-color: #a1aeff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;"> -0.14 </td>
   <td style="text-align:right;background-color: #a1aeff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;"> 0.95 </td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
   <td style="text-align:left;background-color: #a1aeff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;"> RQ1_NEG </td>
   <td style="text-align:right;background-color: #a1aeff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;"> -0.19 </td>
   <td style="text-align:right;background-color: #a1aeff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;"> 0.01 </td>
   <td style="text-align:right;background-color: #a1aeff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;"> 0.81 </td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
   <td style="text-align:left;background-color: #a1aeff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;"> RQ4_NEG </td>
   <td style="text-align:right;background-color: #a1aeff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;"> -0.35 </td>
   <td style="text-align:right;background-color: #a1aeff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;"> -0.20 </td>
   <td style="text-align:right;background-color: #a1aeff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;"> 0.42 </td>
  </tr>
</tbody>
</table>

]

.pull-right[

<table>
 <thead>
  <tr>
   <th style="text-align:left;background-color: #3f51b5; color: #fff; !important;font-size: 16px;"> Variable </th>
   <th style="text-align:left;background-color: #3f51b5; color: #fff; !important;font-size: 16px;"> Question </th>
  </tr>
 </thead>
<tbody>
  <tr>
   <td style="text-align:left;background-color: #e4eaff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;"> RQ6 </td>
   <td style="text-align:left;background-color: #e4eaff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;"> I enjoy working with computers. </td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
   <td style="text-align:left;background-color: #e4eaff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;"> RQ8 </td>
   <td style="text-align:left;background-color: #e4eaff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;"> I feel confident using computers. </td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
   <td style="text-align:left;background-color: #e4eaff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;"> RQ7 </td>
   <td style="text-align:left;background-color: #e4eaff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;"> I find computers easy to use. </td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
   <td style="text-align:left;background-color: #e4eaff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;font-weight: bold;background-color: #e4eaff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;border-bottom: 3px solid white;"> RQ5 </td>
   <td style="text-align:left;background-color: #e4eaff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;font-weight: bold;background-color: #e4eaff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;border-bottom: 3px solid white;"> I find technology challenging. </td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
   <td style="text-align:left;background-color: #c8d0ff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;"> RQ3 </td>
   <td style="text-align:left;background-color: #c8d0ff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;"> I love learning about statistics. </td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
   <td style="text-align:left;background-color: #c8d0ff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;border-bottom: 3px solid white;"> RQ2 </td>
   <td style="text-align:left;background-color: #c8d0ff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;border-bottom: 3px solid white;"> I like maths. </td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
   <td style="text-align:left;background-color: #a1aeff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;"> RQ9_NEG </td>
   <td style="text-align:left;background-color: #a1aeff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;"> I hate RStudio </td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
   <td style="text-align:left;background-color: #a1aeff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;"> RQ1_NEG </td>
   <td style="text-align:left;background-color: #a1aeff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;"> I dislike my R practicals. </td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
   <td style="text-align:left;background-color: #a1aeff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;"> RQ4_NEG </td>
   <td style="text-align:left;background-color: #a1aeff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;"> I don't enjoy using R. </td>
  </tr>
</tbody>
</table>

]

<br>

<div class="tu" style="font-size:90%">
<p><b>Top Tip!</b> We're looking for <b>inconsistent signs +/-</b> on the primary factor loading!</p>
</div>

---

## Reverse Coding - How?

**Step 2: Decide which, if any, variables are negatively related**

.pull-left[

<table>
 <thead>
  <tr>
   <th style="text-align:left;background-color: #3f51b5; color: #fff; !important;font-size: 16px;"> Variable </th>
   <th style="text-align:right;background-color: #3f51b5; color: #fff; !important;font-size: 16px;"> MR1 </th>
   <th style="text-align:right;background-color: #3f51b5; color: #fff; !important;font-size: 16px;"> MR2 </th>
   <th style="text-align:right;background-color: #3f51b5; color: #fff; !important;font-size: 16px;"> MR3 </th>
  </tr>
 </thead>
<tbody>
  <tr>
   <td style="text-align:left;background-color: #e4eaff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;"> RQ6 </td>
   <td style="text-align:right;background-color: #e4eaff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;"> 0.91 </td>
   <td style="text-align:right;background-color: #e4eaff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;"> 0.12 </td>
   <td style="text-align:right;background-color: #e4eaff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;"> 0.15 </td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
   <td style="text-align:left;background-color: #e4eaff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;"> RQ8 </td>
   <td style="text-align:right;background-color: #e4eaff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;"> 0.79 </td>
   <td style="text-align:right;background-color: #e4eaff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;"> -0.08 </td>
   <td style="text-align:right;background-color: #e4eaff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;"> -0.33 </td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
   <td style="text-align:left;background-color: #e4eaff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;"> RQ7 </td>
   <td style="text-align:right;background-color: #e4eaff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;"> 0.71 </td>
   <td style="text-align:right;background-color: #e4eaff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;"> 0.16 </td>
   <td style="text-align:right;background-color: #e4eaff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;"> -0.06 </td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
   <td style="text-align:left;background-color: #e4eaff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;border-bottom: 3px solid white;"> RQ5 </td>
   <td style="text-align:right;background-color: #e4eaff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;border-bottom: 3px solid white;"> -0.54 </td>
   <td style="text-align:right;background-color: #e4eaff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;border-bottom: 3px solid white;"> 0.37 </td>
   <td style="text-align:right;background-color: #e4eaff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;border-bottom: 3px solid white;"> -0.08 </td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
   <td style="text-align:left;background-color: #c8d0ff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;"> RQ3 </td>
   <td style="text-align:right;background-color: #c8d0ff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;"> 0.01 </td>
   <td style="text-align:right;background-color: #c8d0ff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;"> 0.95 </td>
   <td style="text-align:right;background-color: #c8d0ff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;"> -0.05 </td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
   <td style="text-align:left;background-color: #c8d0ff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;border-bottom: 3px solid white;"> RQ2 </td>
   <td style="text-align:right;background-color: #c8d0ff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;border-bottom: 3px solid white;"> 0.04 </td>
   <td style="text-align:right;background-color: #c8d0ff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;border-bottom: 3px solid white;"> 0.95 </td>
   <td style="text-align:right;background-color: #c8d0ff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;border-bottom: 3px solid white;"> -0.02 </td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
   <td style="text-align:left;font-weight: bold;background-color: #a1aeff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;"> RQ9_NEG </td>
   <td style="text-align:right;font-weight: bold;background-color: #a1aeff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;"> 0.08 </td>
   <td style="text-align:right;font-weight: bold;background-color: #a1aeff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;"> -0.14 </td>
   <td style="text-align:right;font-weight: bold;background-color: #a1aeff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;"> 0.95 </td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
   <td style="text-align:left;font-weight: bold;background-color: #a1aeff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;"> RQ1_NEG </td>
   <td style="text-align:right;font-weight: bold;background-color: #a1aeff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;"> -0.19 </td>
   <td style="text-align:right;font-weight: bold;background-color: #a1aeff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;"> 0.01 </td>
   <td style="text-align:right;font-weight: bold;background-color: #a1aeff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;"> 0.81 </td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
   <td style="text-align:left;font-weight: bold;background-color: #a1aeff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;"> RQ4_NEG </td>
   <td style="text-align:right;font-weight: bold;background-color: #a1aeff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;"> -0.35 </td>
   <td style="text-align:right;font-weight: bold;background-color: #a1aeff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;"> -0.20 </td>
   <td style="text-align:right;font-weight: bold;background-color: #a1aeff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;"> 0.42 </td>
  </tr>
</tbody>
</table>

]

.pull-right[

<table>
 <thead>
  <tr>
   <th style="text-align:left;background-color: #3f51b5; color: #fff; !important;font-size: 16px;"> Variable </th>
   <th style="text-align:left;background-color: #3f51b5; color: #fff; !important;font-size: 16px;"> Question </th>
  </tr>
 </thead>
<tbody>
  <tr>
   <td style="text-align:left;background-color: #e4eaff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;"> RQ6 </td>
   <td style="text-align:left;background-color: #e4eaff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;"> I enjoy working with computers. </td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
   <td style="text-align:left;background-color: #e4eaff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;"> RQ8 </td>
   <td style="text-align:left;background-color: #e4eaff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;"> I feel confident using computers. </td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
   <td style="text-align:left;background-color: #e4eaff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;"> RQ7 </td>
   <td style="text-align:left;background-color: #e4eaff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;"> I find computers easy to use. </td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
   <td style="text-align:left;background-color: #e4eaff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;border-bottom: 3px solid white;"> RQ5 </td>
   <td style="text-align:left;background-color: #e4eaff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;border-bottom: 3px solid white;"> I find technology challenging. </td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
   <td style="text-align:left;background-color: #c8d0ff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;"> RQ3 </td>
   <td style="text-align:left;background-color: #c8d0ff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;"> I love learning about statistics. </td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
   <td style="text-align:left;background-color: #c8d0ff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;border-bottom: 3px solid white;"> RQ2 </td>
   <td style="text-align:left;background-color: #c8d0ff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;border-bottom: 3px solid white;"> I like maths. </td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
   <td style="text-align:left;font-weight: bold;background-color: #a1aeff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;"> RQ9_NEG </td>
   <td style="text-align:left;font-weight: bold;background-color: #a1aeff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;"> I hate RStudio </td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
   <td style="text-align:left;font-weight: bold;background-color: #a1aeff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;"> RQ1_NEG </td>
   <td style="text-align:left;font-weight: bold;background-color: #a1aeff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;"> I dislike my R practicals. </td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
   <td style="text-align:left;font-weight: bold;background-color: #a1aeff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;"> RQ4_NEG </td>
   <td style="text-align:left;font-weight: bold;background-color: #a1aeff; color: black; !important;font-size: 16px;"> I don't enjoy using R. </td>
  </tr>
</tbody>
</table>

]

<br>

<div class="tu" style="font-size:90%">
<p><b>Top Tip!</b> We're looking for <b>inconsistent signs +/-</b> on the primary factor loading!</p>
</div>

---

## Reverse Coding - How?

**Step 3: Recode our items**

```r
# method 1 - using simple maths on a 5-point scale 
data <- data |>
  dplyr::mutate(column_name = 6-column_name) 
```

```r
# method 2 - using recode
data <- data |> 
  dplyr::mutate(column_name = dplyr::recode(
    column_name, `1` = 5, `2` = 4, `3` = 3, `4` = 2, `5` = 1))
```

**Step 4: Check recoding**

Use the table() function to compare frequencies before and after recoding to check it has worked

<div class="pc" style="font-size:90%">
<p><b>Demo!</b> Reverse coding numeric items & double checking with table()! </p>
</div>

---

## Creating Composites - What & Why?

- <a class='glossary' title='A composite score typically refers to a combined measure that incorporates multiple individual variables or components into a single numerical value. In the context of questionnaires or surveys, a composite score refers to a single numerical value calculated from responses to multiple questions or items within the questionnaire. These questions or items typically pertain to related aspects of a particular construct or domain being measured.'>Composite Scores</a> are usually created by calculating the **mean** of a set of items from a scale or questionnaire

- We can calculate composite scores from **all** items on a scale

+ We could have a measure of **"Love for R"** made up of all 50 survey items

- Or we can create composites from different **subsets** of items that make up different **factors**/**subscales**

+ Maybe our measure of **"Love for R"** can be broken down into 3 **factors**/**subscales** of **"Love for Stats"**, **"Love for Computers"**, and **"Coolness"**

- We look at the results of our **factor analysis** to decide how items can be combined into a composite (i.e., if we have one overall score, or different subscales), or we can use the **scoring instructions** for any pre-validated scales that we're using

---

## Creating Composites - What & Why?

- For example, we could have 4 items of 'r_love' that we can use to create a composite measure by calculating the **mean** of those items for each participant

.center[

]

- We can then use these **composites** to represent a given construct in further analyses/models

---

## Any Questions?

.center[

]

---

## Creating Composites - How?

- We can use a combination of different functions to create a **composite score**:

+ **dplyr::mutate()**, **dplyr::rowwise()**, **mean()**, **c()** & **c_across()**
  
- Before creating composites we should also **reverse score** any negative items because the scoring differs between **positive** and **negative** items and the **mean** of them would not be accurate

- We often have to make some decisions around how we choose to handle **missing data** when creating composites

+ I.e., whether we'll calculate the mean regardless of any missing data, whether we'll calculate it for only complete cases, or whether we'll allow *some* missing data 
  
  + This is entirely up to the researcher, or the scale creator (there may be specific recommendations you need to follow for scales created by others)

---

## Creating Composites - How?

```r
# method 1 - using columns next to eachother
comp_scores <- data |> 
  dplyr::rowwise() |>
  dplyr::mutate(column_name1_comp = mean(c_across(item1:item3)),
                column_name2_comp = mean(c_across(item4:item5)))
```

```r
# method 2 - using columns NOT next to eachother
data <- data |>
    dplyr::rowwise() |>
    dplyr::mutate(column_name1_comp = mean(c(item1, item2, item3)),
                  column_name2_comp = mean(c(item4, item5)))
```

<div class="pc" style="font-size:90%">
<p><b>Demo!</b> Creating composites! </p>
</div>

---

## *That's all - happy wrangling!*

<p style="text-align:right; font-size:50%">Artwork by @allison_horst</p>

.center[

[Give session feedback here!](https://forms.gle/ZyXAB7kZzUUyct9n6) 😀

]